About 85 per cent of the population is classified as ethnic Bulgarian and about 9 per cent is Turkish, a group that has suffered serious discrimination. Small groups of Armenians, Roma (Gypsies), Greeks, and Macedonian Slavs also inhabit the country. The population of Bulgaria became increasingly urbanized after 1945, and by 2003 about 70 per cent of the population was defined as urban.

A. Population Characteristics

Bulgaria has a population of 7,450,349 (2005 estimate). At the 1985 census the population was 8,950,000, and the subsequent decrease is partly attributed to the mass migration of Turks fleeing government persecution in the late 1980s. Population density is about 67 people per sq km (175 people per sq mi).

B. Political Divisions

Bulgaria is divided into 28 administrative regions, including the capital, Sofia.

C. Principal Cities

Sofia is the largest city, with a population of 1,194,164 (2002 estimate). Other major cities are Plovdiv, population 340,638 (2001), a centre for light industry; and Varna, 314,539 (2001), the principal seaport.

D. Religion

For more than 40 years under Communist rule the Bulgarian government discriminated against practising believers, and promoted atheism, to which an estimated 65 per cent of the population subscribed in the early 1980s. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, a branch of the Eastern Orthodox Church, was attended by about 27 per cent of the population. The government reforms of the late 1980s loosened religious restrictions, and by the early 1990s more than 80 per cent of the population claimed affiliation to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Other religious groups include Muslims, Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Jews.

E. Language

The official language is Bulgarian, a first language for about 85 per cent of the population. Turkish is also spoken, by about 9 per cent of the population as a mother tongue. Other languages spoken as mother tongues include: Balkan Romani (187,900 speakers; an Indo-Iranian language); Gagauz (12,000; a Turkic language, see Altaic Languages); Crimean Turkish (6,000); Macedo Romanian (2,000 to 3,000); and Gheg Albanian (1,000).

F. Education

All schools in Bulgaria are free and state controlled and were modelled after those in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). A major aim of the Bulgarian educational system is to supply technical and skilled workers to meet the demands of heavy, as opposed to service, industry. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 16. In the mid-1990s approximately 1,218,000 pupils attended elementary schools in Bulgaria, and about 213,300 students were enrolled in secondary, vocational, or teacher-training schools.

The country has over 30 institutions of higher learning, including the University of Sofia (1888) and various specialized professional institutes. Total yearly enrolment in 2001–2002 amounted to approximately 228,394 students. In 2001–2002 expenditure on education amounted to some 3.6 per cent of gross national product (GNP).

G. Culture

Popular Wedding Music of Bulgaria

Popular Wedding Music of Bulgaria
By far the most popular music heard in Bulgaria is wedding music. Although music is also played at baptisms, house-warmings, and send-off celebrations for soldiers, wedding music—performed primarily by Gypsies—is a distinct folk genre that has increased in popularity in the cities and villages due to the amplification of instruments. Most wedding bands are made up of clarinet, saxophone, accordion, guitar, bass, and drums. The music is a mix of Turkish and Bulgarian dance rhythms, largely uneven by Western standards, that are based on Turkish and Arabic melodies.
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“Mladeshki Dance” (Ivo Papasov) Rykomusic, Inc. from Ivo Papasov and His Orchestra: Balkanology (Cat.# Hannibal HNCD 1363) (p)1991 Rykodisc, Inc. All rights reserved.

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In the Middle Ages (especially in the 10th and 11th centuries), Bulgaria was the centre of Slavic culture. Over the centuries Bulgarian culture has been influenced successively by Byzantine, Greek, Russian, and Western cultures. Bulgarian literature is an important cultural force.

Large libraries in Sofia include the Central Library of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the library of the University of Sofia, and the Cyril and Methodius National Library. The Ivan Vazov National Library is located in Plovdiv. In addition, there are many smaller public libraries.

The country has more than 200 museums. In Sofia are botanical and zoological museums and gardens; the National Archaeological Museum, with a collection of ancient coins and finds from many early burial mounds; and the National Ethnographical Museum. Other museums in the country are devoted to history, science, and the revolutionary movement.

Traditional Singing of Bulgaria

Traditional Singing of Bulgaria
Bulgaria is divided into six folkloric regions and within each region there is a rich vocal tradition, especially among women. Though each area is distinguished by its own style and technique, in the last 50 years the government has made an effort to bring singers from these regions together to form folkloric choirs and ensembles. This example is by a trio ensemble which performs music from each region. Today, Bulgarian folk music is a rich homogenous blending of polyphonic singing and folkloric nuances that represents all of Bulgaria.
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“More, Zazheni Se Gyuro (Gyuro is Getting Married)” (arr. Philip Koutev) from Trio Bulgarka:The Forest is Crying (Lament for Indje Voivode) (Cat.# Hannibal HNCD 1342) (p)1988 Hannibal Records Ltd. All rights reserved.

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The 13th-century frescoes of the Boyana Church near Sofia are outstanding examples of the painting of that period. Bulgarian handicrafts include rich folk embroideries and ornaments. Some of the best sculpture, woodcarving, etchings, and painting are based on traditional culture and native subjects. Outstanding Bulgarian artists include the etcher Peter Morozov, the painter Vladimir Dimitrov, and the sculptors Ivan Lazarov and Christo. The last-named, an avant-garde artist noted for his technique of wrapping objects and landscape features, now lives in the United States.

The chief architectural monuments of Bulgaria are medieval churches and monasteries. The oldest is the circular Church of St George in Sofia, originally a pagan temple. The Rila Monastery, founded in the 10th century, is striking in its mountainous setting. An important monument of the 11th century is Bachkovo Monastery, south of Plovdiv. A major modern structure is the large, ornate Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia.

Traditional Bulgarian music includes folk songs and choral plain chants in the Greek mode for church services. The chief native musical instruments are the gaida (bagpipe) and the kaval (a wooden flute traditionally used by shepherds). The characteristic folk dances are variations of the hora, a round chain dance, and the ruchenitsa, a lively dance for two couples. Modern Bulgarian orchestral and operatic compositions have occasionally gained recognition in other countries. Among leading composers are Petko Stainov and Pancho Vladigerov.

A. Rivers and Lakes

The principal river draining Bulgaria is the Danube, which has among its Bulgarian tributaries the Iskŭr (about 370 km/230 mi long) and the Yantra (about 290 km/180 mi long). Other important rivers are the Kamchiya (about 180 km/110 mi long), which empties into the Black Sea, and in the south-west, the Struma and Mesta, which flow south to the Aegean Sea.

B. Climate

Most of Bulgaria has a continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers. The climate in general is more severe than in other European areas of the same latitudes, and the average annual temperature range is greater than that of neighbouring countries. Severe droughts, frosts, wind, and hail frequently damage crops. A Mediterranean climate, with dry summers and mild, humid winters, prevails in the valley of the south-western Rhodope Mountains; the northern limit of the climatic zone is the Balkan Mountains.

The average annual temperature is about 12.8° C (55° F). The average rainfall is about 635 mm (25 in) per year, ranging from a low of around 200 mm (8 in) in the north-east, to a high of 1,905 mm (75 in) in the Rila Mountains. The wettest period is early summer in most of the country and autumn or winter in the southern valleys.

C. Natural Resources

The main resources of Bulgaria are agricultural. The country also has a wealth of metallic and non-metallic minerals, mainly iron ore and coal. Other mineral reserves are small, but some deposits, particularly those of manganese and oil, are valuable.

D. Plants and Animals

Approximately one third of Bulgaria is forested, and half this area supports tall trees suitable for timber. About 30 per cent of the timber trees are conifers. The Balkan Mountains and their foothills support forests of various trees. Conifers, beech, and oak are found in the timber zone of the Rhodope Mountains and their western extensions. Wild animals are confined to the mountainous south-western portion of the country, where bear, wolf, elk, fox, and wildcat are found.

E. Soils

Soil types vary considerably. Some tablelands have fertile black and grey soils, high in humus content and well suited for growing grain. The Thracian Plain contains brown, loamy soils that are fertile and adapted to diversified cultivation. Deforestation and inadequate soil-conservation practices have caused gradual deterioration of several fertile areas.

F. Environmental Concerns

Bulgaria’s industrial economy has had a negative impact on the environmental health of the country. Virtually all of the middle and lower reaches of the major rivers are polluted by industrial centres that discharge detergents, heavy metals, nitrates, oils, and raw sewage. Water treatment facilities for industrial and municipal wastes are inadequate or non-existent. Two of the largest industrial cities, Varna and Burgas, are located on the Black Sea coast, and the water pollution generated by these centres has threatened the area’s tourist industry. Uncontrolled mining operations and environmentally insensitive practices also contribute to soil contamination. Air pollution, from motor vehicles and industrial emissions, is severe, leading to acid rain and the defoliation of a large portion of Bulgaria’s forests. During the early 1990s the European Community (now the European Union (EU)) granted Bulgaria aid money for the improvement of environmental and nuclear safety.

The government has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to air pollution, Antarctic environmental protocol, Antarctic treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, law of the sea, nuclear test ban, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands.

The region now called Bulgaria was once part of the Roman Empire and comprised parts of the provinces of Thrace and Moesia. It was inhabited by the Thraco-Illyrians. Beginning in the 6th century ad Slavic peoples migrated into the region and either absorbed or drove out the original inhabitants. During the latter part of the 7th century Bulgars (people of Turkic stock) migrated from their domain on the east side of the Black Sea, crossed the lower reaches of the Danube, and subjugated Lower Moesia, then a province of the Byzantine Empire. Imperial armies failed repeatedly to dislodge the invaders during the 8th century. Fewer in number than the Slavic population of Lower Moesia, the Bulgars gradually became Slavicized during this period. By the end of the century they had annexed considerable additional territory and laid the foundations for a strong state under Khan Krum, who reigned from 803 to 814. The Krum armies inflicted a devastating defeat on an invading Byzantine force in 811 and, assuming the offensive, nearly succeeded in 813 in taking Constantinople. Bulgarian-Byzantine relations were thereafter relatively peaceful and continued to be so during the first half of the 9th century. The immediate successors of Krum enlarged their dominions, mainly in the region of Serbia and Macedonia. In 860, however, during the reign (852-889) of Boris I, Bulgaria suffered a severe military setback at the hands of the Serbs. Four years later Boris, responding to pressure from the Byzantine emperor Michael III, made Christianity the official religion of the khanate. Boris accepted the primacy of the papacy in 866, but in 870, following the refusal of Pope Adrian II to make Bulgaria an archbishopric, he shifted his allegiance to the Eastern Orthodox Church.

A. First Bulgarian Empire

In the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Bulgaria became the strongest nation of Eastern Europe during the reign of Boris’s son Simeon. A brilliant administrator and military leader, Simeon introduced Byzantine culture into his realm, encouraged education, obtained new territories, defeated the Magyars (Hungarians), and conducted a series of successful wars against the Byzantine Empire. In 925 Simeon proclaimed himself Emperor of the Greeks and Bulgars. He conquered Serbia in 926 and became the most powerful monarch in contemporary Eastern Europe. Simeon’s reign was marked by great cultural advances led by the followers of St Cyril and his brother St Methodius, the “apostles of the Slavs” (see Cyril (827-869) and Methodius (c. 826-884), SS). During this period Old Church Slavonic, the first written Slavic language, and the Cyrillic alphabet were adopted.

Weakened by domestic strife and successive Magyar raids, Bulgarian power declined steadily during the following half-century. In 969 invading Russians seized the capital and captured the royal family. The Byzantine emperor John I Tzimisces, alarmed over the Russian advance into south-eastern Europe, intervened (970) in the Russo-Bulgarian conflict. The Russians were compelled to withdraw from Bulgaria in 972, and the eastern part of the country was annexed to the Byzantine Empire. Samuel, the son of a Bulgarian provincial governor, became ruler of western Bulgaria in 976. Samuel’s armies were annihilated in 1014 by the Byzantine emperor Basil II, who incorporated the short-lived state into his empire in 1018.

B. Second Empire and Turkish Rule

Bulgarian Castle

Bulgarian Castle
In 1185 Bulgarians freed themselves from Byzantine rule. They established an empire that lasted about 145 years before Serbs, and then Turks, conquered the region. This castle, which dates from that period, stands in Nessebur, in east-central Bulgaria.
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Led by the nobles Ivan Asen and Peter Asen, the Bulgarians revolted against Byzantine rule in 1185 and established a second empire. It consisted initially of the region between the Balkan Mountains and the Danube; by the early 13th century it included extensive neighbouring territories, notably sections of Serbia and all of western Macedonia. In 1204, following the Latin occupation of Constantinople, Ivan and Peter’s brother, Kaloyan (reigned 1197-1207) temporarily broke with the Eastern Orthodox Church and accepted the primacy of the pope (renouncing it again in 1234). Ivan Asen II (reigned 1218-1241), the fifth ruler of the Asen dynasty, added western Thrace, the remainder of Macedonia, and part of Albania to the empire in 1230.

Feudal strife and involvement in foreign wars caused gradual disintegration of the empire after the death of Ivan Asen II. The Bulgarian armies were decisively defeated by the Serbs in 1330, and for the next quarter-century the second empire was little more than a dependency of Serbia. Shortly after 1360 the Ottoman Turks began to ravage the Maritsa Valley, completing the subjugation of Bulgaria in 1396. During the next five centuries the political and cultural existence of Bulgaria was almost obliterated. After a century of terrorism and persecution, Turkish administration improved, and the economic condition of the remaining Bulgarians rose to a level higher than it had been under the kingdom, although unsuccessful revolts against Turkish rule occurred from time to time.

With the revival of a Bulgarian literature glorifying the history of the country, in the latter half of the 18th century and the early part of the 19th century, Bulgarian nationalism became a powerful movement. In 1876 the Bulgarians revolted against the Turks, but were quelled; in reprisal, the Turks massacred some 15,000 Bulgarian men, women, and children. In 1877, prompted by the desire to expand towards the Mediterranean Sea and by Pan-Slavic sentiment, Russia declared war on Turkey. As a result of the Russo-Turkish War, in which Turkey was defeated, a part of Bulgaria became an autonomous principality; another part, Eastern Rumelia, was made an autonomous Turkish province.

C. Modern Bulgaria

Elected by a Bulgarian assembly in 1879, the first prince of the new Bulgaria was a German, Alexander of Battenberg, also a prince and a nephew of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. Eastern Rumelia revolted against Turkey in 1885 and was united with Bulgaria. Russia, however, considered the action inopportune and withdrew all officers who had been detailed to train the Bulgarian army. Thereupon, Serbia declared war on Bulgaria but was quickly defeated. In 1886 a group of Russian and Bulgarian conspirators abducted Prince Alexander and established a Russian-dominated government. Within a few days the government was overthrown by the Bulgarian statesman Stepan Stambolov, but the Russians compelled Prince Alexander to abdicate. The new ruler, chosen in 1887, was Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Taking advantage of a revolution in Turkey, in 1908 Ferdinand declared Bulgaria independent and assumed the title of King Ferdinand I; he reigned from 1908 to 1918.

1. Balkan Wars and World War I

In the First Balkan War (1912-1913) (see Balkan Wars), Bulgaria, allied with Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece, defeated Turkey. Division of the reconquered Balkan territories, however, resulted in the Second Balkan War, which Bulgaria lost to Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Turkey, and Romania; as a consequence, Bulgaria lost considerable territory. Bulgaria entered World War I in 1915 on the side of the Central Powers, but was forced to agree on an armistice with the Allies in September 1918. Tsar Ferdinand abdicated in October and was succeeded by his son, Boris III. By the Treaty of Neuilly on November 27, 1919, Bulgaria lost most of what it had gained in the Balkan Wars and all of its conquests from World War I. It was also required to abandon conscription, reduce armaments, and pay large reparations.

D. Inter-war Period and World War II

The Agrarian Party government under Aleksandr Stambolisky, who became premier in 1919, attempted to improve the condition of the large peasant class and maintain friendly relations with the other Balkan countries. Stambolisky’s dictatorial regime, unpopular with the army and the urban middle class, was overthrown by a coup d’état in 1923; he himself was captured and killed while seeking to escape. Internal dissension continued under the new government, which represented all political parties except the Agrarians, Communists, and Liberals. Bulgaria and Greece again came into conflict in 1925, and the Greek army invaded Bulgaria. The Council of the League of Nations brought the conflict to an end and penalized Greece. In 1934, Tsar Boris staged a coup of his own and established a royal dictatorship. In September 1940, Germany compelled Romania to cede southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. In March 1941, under German pressure, Bulgaria joined the Axis powers, agreeing to immediate occupation by German forces. Bulgaria declared war on Greece and Yugoslavia in April, shortly afterwards occupying all of Yugoslav Macedonia, Grecian Thrace, eastern Greek Macedonia, and the Greek districts of Florina and Kastoría. Bulgaria signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in November and the following month declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom. Although allied with Nazi Germany (see National Socialism), Tsar Boris and his government resisted German demands for the persecution of Bulgarian Jews, most of whom survived the Holocaust.

When the tide of war turned against the Germans in 1943, Hitler attempted to force Bulgaria to declare war on the USSR. In August 1943, after returning from a meeting with the German dictator, Tsar Boris died under mysterious circumstances and was succeeded by his six-year-old son, Simeon II, and a pro-German government under Dobri Bozhilov. An anti-German resistance movement organized by the Communists and the Agrarians opposed the Bozhilov regime, which fell in May 1944. The succeeding government severed its ties with Germany, but it was too late. The USSR formally declared war on Bulgaria on September 5. No fighting occurred, and the Bulgarian government subsequently asked the USSR for an armistice; Bulgaria, moreover, declared war on Germany on September 7. The armistice was agreed to by the USSR on September 9, and under the protection of Soviet forces a government subservient to the USSR was immediately established. The armistice, signed by the USSR, the United States, and the United Kingdom in October 1944, provided for the control of Bulgaria, until the signing of final peace treaties, by the Allied Control Commission under the chairmanship of the Soviet representative, who was also the commander of the Soviet occupation forces. The armistice provided also that the Bulgarians evacuate Yugoslav Macedonia and territories they had taken from Greece.

Soviet pressure in the Bulgarian election engaged the attention of the United Kingdom and the United States in the autumn of 1945. National elections originally scheduled for August were postponed because of US protests concerning the nature of Soviet political manoeuvres within Bulgaria. The opposition parties boycotted the elections held on November 18, and a single list of candidates from the Communist-dominated Fatherland Front won 85 per cent of the vote.

E. Communist Regime

By a plebiscite in September 1946, the Bulgarians ousted Tsar Simeon and ended the monarchy; a week later Bulgaria was proclaimed a people’s republic. The constitution drawn up by the Fatherland Front, which won an overwhelming victory in the elections to the National Assembly, held in October, provided for freedom of the press, assembly, and speech. The National Assembly, which gained full control of state affairs, then elected the premier and also the president. The first president was Vasil Kolarov, a Communist Party leader. Georgi Dimitrov, a former key figure in the Communist International, was elected premier in November 1946.

In February 1947, the peace treaty formally ending Bulgarian participation in World War II was signed in Paris. It provided for reparations to be paid to Greece in the amount of US$45 million and to Yugoslavia in the amount of US$25 million; severe limitation of military strength, with partial demilitarization along the Greek frontier; and the retention of southern Dobruja. (The borders with Greece were returned to their status as of 1941.) In December 1947 the National Assembly adopted a new constitution modelled on that of the USSR; this document replaced the presidency with the presidium, an executive committee. That September, Nikola Dimitrov Petkov, leader of the Agrarian Party, had been executed after being convicted of conspiring to overthrow the government.

Under pressure from the USSR, Bulgaria renounced its treaty of friendship with Yugoslavia after the Soviet-Yugoslavian rift in 1948; relations with the country and its successor states have since continued to fluctuate, as have those with neighbouring Greece and Turkey. Diplomatic ties with the West have frequently been marred by Bulgarian accusations of Western espionage activities.

During most of the Communist period, under the leadership of Todor Zhivkov—Secretary of the Communist Party from 1954, the country’s premier from 1962 to 1971, and Head of State from 1971 to late 1989—Bulgaria was one of the most restrictive societies among the former Soviet satellites. In 1953 the government decreed that all people who left the country without permission were subject to the death penalty and their families to internment in concentration camps. Zhivkov also decreed that the country’s population of 800,000 Turks “Bulgarize” their names. As a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and the Warsaw Pact, Bulgaria long remained among the USSR’s most dependable allies. During the 1970s the country received substantial financial aid from the USSR, which was used for industrialization.

During the mid-1980s the Zhivkov government launched a campaign to assimilate members of Bulgaria’s Turkish minority by forcing them to take Slavic names, prohibiting them from speaking Turkish in public, and subjecting them to other forms of harassment; during 1989 alone, more than 300,000 Bulgarian Turks crossed the border into Turkey to escape persecution. Late in 1989, Zhivkov was ousted from power and expelled from the Communist Party; replacing him as general secretary was the foreign minister, Petar T. Mladenov. Under Mladenov’s leadership, Bulgaria restored the civil rights of Bulgarian Turks and began to institute a multi-party system. In June 1990 the Communists, running as the Bulgarian Socialist Party, won the nation’s first free parliamentary elections since World War II. Mladenov, who had become president in April, resigned in July, and with Communist support the opposition leader, Zhelyu Zhelev, was chosen to succeed him. Under a new constitution providing for direct presidential voting, Zhelev won re-election in January 1992. In September, after an 18-month-long trial, Zhivkov was found guilty of corruption while in office and sentenced to prison.

F. Fragile Transition

After the 1991 elections, Bulgaria began to restructure its economy and enacted a plan to return land seized by the Communist Party to the original owners. The parliament also passed laws allowing foreign investment. However, with the collapse of COMECON, the trade association of the former USSR, Bulgaria lost many of its traditional markets and its economy suffered. Since then, Bulgaria has lagged behind the rest of Eastern Europe in economic reform because of a series of weak governments. Private businesses are often run by the old Communist elite. In 1995 unemployment stood at 20 per cent, and inflation topped 120 per cent. A general election held in December 1994 gave the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP) an outright parliamentary majority, under the leadership of 35-year-old Zhan Videnov. At the same time, the lev dropped considerably in value, prompting a sharp rise in interest rates.

The distribution of vouchers to be used in the first phase of privatization was approved by the government in August 1995, and the list of state enterprises to be privatized was issued in October. In late March 1996 a Russian offer to join an economic union of former Soviet republics resulted in heated controversy; the Videnov government denied allegations of secret talks and claimed a desire to be part of a united Europe. The collapse of the national currency in May triggered a serious financial crisis, and hastened government legislation to reform the banking system. Exiled King Simeon II returned to Bulgaria in late May, fuelling rumours of his interest in a potential presidential candidacy. Interest rates were tripled in September by the central bank in an attempt to avert another financial crisis.

The fatal shooting of former prime minister Lukanov in October aroused speculation as to the involvement of organized crime. In the second round of presidential elections held in November, Petar Stoyanov, the opposition Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) candidate, emerged as the clear victor. A fresh financial crisis arose in mid-November, when thousands of depositors besieged the State Savings Bank, and in December Videnov resigned from the position of prime minister. In January 1997 Stoyanov was inaugurated as president and the stand-off between the majority BSP and UDF continued. The political crisis eased in February when the BSP agreed to relinquish its mandate, allowing the president to appoint an interim Cabinet and call a general election in April. The IMF gave approval in principle to a US$148 million loan in March to support economic recovery and the currency control board system that was to be established as a condition of the loan. In the April general election the centre-right UDF won a decisive victory, nominating its chairman Ivan Kostov as the new prime minister; he was formally elected by the National Assembly in May. It was announced in June that the lev was to be pegged to the Deutschmark, and the way paved for the operation of the currency control board in July; both measures aimed at increasing financial stability.

President Stoyanov hosted a summit meeting attended by the presidents of Romania and Turkey, during which they issued a joint declaration supporting the accession to North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) of Bulgaria and Romania, and promising closer cooperation in the fight against organized crime in the region. The National Assembly approved a restitution law in November, providing for the return of property confiscated by previous communist governments to its former owners. During a visit in December by Mesut Yilmaz, prime minister of Turkey, agreements were signed concerning cultural affairs, law enforcement, and customs. Stoyanov vetoed reform of the judicial system in October 1998, on the grounds that reform would give the National Assembly too much control over the judiciary. The former king, Simeon, unsuccessfully attempted, in December, to reclaim his estates confiscated five decades earlier.

In November 1999, Bulgaria announced the closure of four Soviet-built nuclear reactors in return for talks on European Union (EU) membership. In the same month, US president Bill Clinton, on a trip to Sofia to mark the tenth anniversary of the end of Communism, encouraged Bulgaria’s bid for NATO membership in return for the country’s support for NATO’s 1999 air strikes against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo crisis.

On the final day of the EU summit in Helsinki, Finland, in December, Bulgaria was among seven countries invited to become candidates for membership. The President of the European Commission, Romano Prodi, told Bulgaria that the EU would support the country’s bid to join the organization by offering increased financial aid to the value of nearly US$2 billion over six years. Prodi praised Bulgaria’s progress in reworking its legislation to conform to EU norms.

Throughout 2000, political life in Bulgaria was marked by a further, and sometimes controversial, diversification of parties and groupings. Ethnic parties and organizations continued to proliferate. In January, two Turkish parties merged, and in February the Ilinden United Macedonian Organization was banned by the Constitutional Court. A new party, the Georgi Ganchev Bloc, was established in March.

Developments in early 2001 were directly influenced by parliamentary elections planned for June. In early April, the former king of Bulgaria announced that he would stand in the election as leader of a new party, the National Movement Simeon II. Internationally, Bulgaria supported the FYROM government in its offensive against Albanian rebels in March 2001 and promoted efforts aimed at a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Bulgaria became a signatory, in April, of an agreement setting up an international naval force, named Blackseafor, of countries bordering the Black Sea. The agreements, signed also by Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Georgia, and Turkey, envisaged using the new force for environmental and humanitarian purposes.

G. The Return of Simeon II

Simeon II

Simeon II
Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was, as Simeon II, the last king of Bulgaria who was deposed by communists in 1946. Following the collapse of the Iron Curtain in 1989, he returned to the country and in 2001 was elected prime minister as leader of his newly formed party, the Simeon II National Movement.
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In June’s parliamentary elections the former Simeon II achieved a landslide victory, and in July he was sworn in as prime minister, as Simeon of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He swiftly appointed a 16-member coalition Cabinet and reiterated his election pledge to improve Bulgaria’s standards of living, which included raising the minimum wage and dealing with corruption. Simeon also pledged to continue the momentum towards EU and NATO membership. In a closely fought presidential election in November 2001 that went to a second round of voting, Georgi Parvanov, the leader of the Bulgarian Socialist Party, beat the incumbent Petar Stoyanov. Parvanov was sworn in and took office in January 2002.

In November 2002 NATO invited Bulgaria to join the organization. At the Copenhagen summit in December that year the EU announced that Bulgaria was not included in the list of countries invited to join in 2004; however, the republic is on course for membership in 2007. In April 2004 Bulgaria formally joined NATO.

Basic Facts
Official name Republic of Bulgaria

Capital Sofia

Area 110,994 sq km
42,855 sq mi

Largest cities (population)
Sofia 1,194,164 (2002 estimate)

Plovdiv 340,638 (2001)

Varna 314,539 (2001)

Burgas 193,316 (2001)

Stara Zagora 143,989 (2001)

Pleven 122,149 (2001)

Ruse 162,128 (2001)

Sliven 100,695 (2001)

Dobrich 100,379 (2001)

People
Population 7,450,349 (2005 estimate)

Population growth rate -0.89 per cent (2005 estimate)

Population density 67 persons per sq km (2005 estimate)175 persons per sq mi (2005 estimate)

Urbanization

Per cent urban 70 per cent (2003 estimate)

Per cent rural 30 per cent (2003 estimate)

Life expectancy

Total 72 years (2005 estimate)

Female 75.9 years (2005 estimate)

Male 68.4 years (2005 estimate)

Infant mortality rate

21 deaths per 1,000 live births (2005 estimate)

Literacy rate

Total 98.8 per cent (2005 estimate)

Female 98.4 per cent (2005 estimate)

Male 99.2 per cent (2005 estimate)

Ethnic divisions
Bulgarian 85.3 per cent

Turkish 8.5 per cent

Romany (Gypsy) 2.6 per cent

Armenian 0.3 per cent

Russian 0.2 per cent

Other or none 3.1 per cent

Languages
Bulgarian (official); secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown

Religions
Bulgarian Orthodox 85 per cent

Muslim 13 per cent

Other or none 2 per cent

Government
Type of government Multi-party republic

Independence
October 5, 1908 (from the Ottoman Empire)

Constitution Adopted July 12, 1991

Voting rights
Universal and compulsory at age 18

Economy
Gross domestic product (GDP) (US$)

19,860 million (2003)

GDP per capita (US$) 2,540 (2003)

GDP by economic sector
GDP, agriculture 11.7 per cent (2003)

GDP, industry 30.7 per cent (2003)

GDP, services 57.5 per cent (2003)

National budget (US$)
Total revenue 7,029 million (2003)

Total expenditure 6,759 million (2003)

Monetary unit 1 lev (Lv), consisting of 100 stotinki

Exports
Machinery and equipment, agricultural products (especially tobacco), manufactured consumer goods, fuels, minerals, raw materials, metals

Imports
Fuels, minerals, raw materials, machinery and equipment, manufactured consumer goods, agricultural products

Major trading partners for exports
Republics of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Germany, Italy, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States

Major trading partners for imports
Republics of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Germany, Italy, Greece, France

Industries
Machine building and metalworking, food processing, chemicals, textiles, building materials, ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Agriculture
Grain crops, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, and tobacco

Natural resources
Bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, iron ore, timber, arable land

Sources
Basic Facts and People sections
Area data are from the statistical bureaus of individual countries. Population, population growth rate, and population projections are from the United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center, International Data Base (IDB) (www.census.gov). Urban and rural population data are from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), FAOSTAT database (www.fao.org). Largest cities population data and political divisions data are from the statistical bureaus of individual countries. Ethnic divisions and religion data are largely from the latest Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook and from various country censuses and reports. Language data are largely from the Ethnologue, Languages of the World, Summer Institute of Linguistics International (www.sil.org).

Health and Education section
Life expectancy and infant mortality data are from the United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center, International database (IDB) (www.census.gov). Population per physician and population per hospital bed data are from the World Health Organization (WHO) (www.who.int). Education data are from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) database (www.unesco.org).

Government section
Government, independence, legislature, constitution, highest court, and voting qualifications data are largely from various government Web sites, the latest Europa World Yearbook, and the latest Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook. The armed forces data is from Military Balance.

Economy section
Gross domestic product (GDP), GDP per capita, GDP by economic sectors, employment, and national budget data are from the World Bank database (www.worldbank.org). Monetary unit, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, exports, imports, and major trade partner information is from the latest Europa World Yearbook and various International Monetary Fund (IMF) publications.

Energy, Communication, and Transportation section
Electricity information is from the Energy Information Administration (EIA) database (www.eia.doe.gov). Radio, telephone, television, and newspaper information is from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) database (www.unesco.org). Internet hosts, motor vehicles, and road data are from the World Bank database (www.worldbank.org).

Bulgarian Literature, literature created by the inhabitants of Bulgaria. Bulgarian literature began in the second half of the 9th century ad with the translations by St Cyril and St Methodius of religious works from Greek into the vernacular, now known as Old Church Slavonic. From this period until the Turkish conquest of Bulgaria (1396), Bulgarian literature consisted mainly of similar translations of the Gospels, lives of the saints, sermons, and other religious material. Historical chronicles were also written. During the Turkish and Greek ecclesiastical domination (1396-1878), Bulgarian literature virtually ceased to exist.

The 19th century marked the beginning of modern Bulgarian literature and the awakening of national consciousness. It had its origin in historical works such as Istoria Slaveno-Bolgarska (History of the Slavic-Bulgarians), written in a form of ecclesiastical Slavonic mixed with popular language by a monk, Paisij, about 1762. After 1830, a movement in Bulgaria for freedom from Turkish rule and Greek Church domination, the establishment of Bulgarian schools and printing establishments, and the publication of Bulgarian grammars and other educational works all played a part in producing a new Bulgarian literature. At the same time, novobulgarski, the new literary Bulgarian language based on the vernacular of its eastern dialects, was formed.

Before 1878 writers were concerned with social and political questions, above all with national independence, rather than with literary style or the problems of the inner life of the individual. The most important writer of this preliberation period was the revolutionary poet Christo Botev. The principal writer of the next period was Ivan Vazov, one of the most prolific as well as one of the most popular of Bulgarian writers and the one who scored a success in English translation, with his novel Under the Yoke (1893; trans. 1912). Other important writers of this period were Stoyan Mikhaylovski and Aleko Konstantinov. The former was a pessimistic philosopher, disillusioned with politics; the latter was a satirist who characterized the Bulgarian peasant in Bai Ganyu (1895; “Uncle John”).

In the post-liberation period, writers increasingly emphasized technique and form and harmony and rhythm of language. Important writers of this third period are the short-story writers Dimiter Ivanov, who wrote under the pen name of Elin-Pelin, and Yordan Yovkov; both are noted for their interest in peasant life and the countryside.

From 1944 until the collapse of communism in 1989, Bulgarian literature adhered closely to the requirements of Soviet Socialist Realism. The work of some talented writers, including the poets Blaga Dimitrova, Lubomir Levchev, and Pavel Matev, nevertheless revealed a fresher point of view and signalled the desire for greater artistic freedom. In particular, the prose-writer Yordan Radichkov handled historical themes, always a Bulgarian favourite, with unusual finesse, and his short novel Khradriatyat chovek (1967; “A Brave Man”) earned wide popularity.

Elias Canetti won the 1981 Nobel Prize for literature for his novels and plays about individuals at odds with society. Born in Bulgaria, Canetti settled in England in 1938 and wrote in German.

Bulgarian Language, the national language of Bulgaria, also spoken in Moldova, Turkey, Greece, Romania, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Bulgarian and the closely related Macedonian language form the eastern group in the southern branch of the modern Slavic languages and are written in the Cyrillic alphabet. They are outstanding among Slavic languages in having eliminated nearly all noun inflections, often using prepositional phrases instead. They have also taken on several regional non-Slavic traits, notably the use of a definite article and its placement after the noun (see Yugoslav Languages) and the use of a clause where other Slavic languages use an infinitive. Old Bulgarian (9th-11th century) is believed to be essentially the same as the earliest form of Old Church Slavonic (10th-11th century), the medieval Macedonian dialect that became the liturgical language of the Eastern Orthodox Church and for which the Cyrillic alphabet was devised. Middle Bulgarian dates from the 12th century and Modern Bulgarian from after the 16th century. The local form of Church Slavonic remained the Bulgarian literary language until a literary language based on modern speech was adopted in the 19th century. Bulgarian has absorbed loanwords mainly from Russian, Church Slavonic, Greek, and Turkish. It has two principal dialect groups, eastern (the basis of the literary language) and western.

Bogomils, members of a religious sect that arose in the 10th century in the Balkans. The chief centre was in Bulgaria and the cult spread among other Slavic peoples. The movement resulted from a blending of Eastern dualism and an evangelical attempt to reform the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. The Bogomils, whose fundamental doctrines are attributed to a priest called Bogomil, held that the first-born son of God was Satanael. Satanael rebelled and created, in opposition to the original spiritual universe, a world of matter and human beings. The Supreme Father gave these human beings a life spirit. This life spirit, however, was kept in slavery by Satanael until a second son of God, the Logos, or Christ, came down from heaven and, assuming a phantom body, broke the power of the evil spirit, who was henceforth called only Satan, the divine name, El, being dropped. The Bogomils practised a severe asceticism, despised images, and rejected the sacraments. They accepted the whole of the New Testament, but of the Old Testament only the Psalms and Prophets, which they interpreted allegorically. The morals and ideals of the Bogomils seem to have been much above the average of their time.

In 1118 the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus executed the leader of the sect for heresy. At the time of the Muslim conquest of Bosnia in the 15th century, the majority of the Christians who embraced Islam, the religion of the conquerors, were Bogomils. Before the Bogomils were suppressed they influenced the development of the Albigensian and Cathari groups of France and Italy in the 12th and 13th centuries.

BULGARIA [Bulgaria] , Bulgarian Balgarija, officially Republic of Bulgaria, republic (2005 est. pop. 7,450,000), 42,823 sq mi (110,912 sq km), SE Europe, on the E Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded by the Black Sea on the east, by Romania on the north, by Serbia and Montenegro and Macedonia on the west, by Greece on the south, and by European Turkey on the southeast. Sofia is the capital. Other important cities are Varna and Burgas (the main Black Sea ports of Bulgaria), Plovdiv and Ruse .

Land and People

Central Bulgaria is traversed from east to west by ranges of the Balkan Mts. ( Stara Planina, or “Old Mountains” in Bulgarian). A fertile plateau runs north of the Balkans to the Danube River, which forms most of the northern border. In the southwest is the Rhodope range, which includes Bulgaria’s highest point, Musala Mt. (9,592 ft/2,923 m). The Thracian plain lies south of the Balkans and east of the Rhodope. The Danube, the Iskŭr, the Maritsa, and the Struma are the principal rivers.

The population consists chiefly of Bulgars. There is a substantial minority of Turks, and smaller groups of Gypsies and Macedonians, although Bulgaria, with its historic claim to Macedonia, refuses to recognize Macedonians as distinct from Bulgars. Bulgarian is the predominant language. Most of the population belongs to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church; in 1953 the Bulgarian patriarchate, which had been disbanded in 1946, was reestablished. There is also a substantial Muslim minority. Institutions of higher education include the universities of Sofia, Plovdiv, Veliko Tŭrnovo, and Varna.

Economy

Until 1989, Bulgaria had a Soviet-style economy in which nearly all agricultural and industrial enterprises were state-controlled. A stagnant economy, shortages of food, energy, and consumer goods, an enormous foreign debt, and an obsolete and inefficient industrial complex instigated attempts at market-oriented reform in the 1990s. Traditionally an agricultural country, Bulgaria has been considerably industrialized since World War II. The leading industries are machine building, metalworking, food processing, engineering, and the production of chemicals, textiles, and electronics. Bulgaria’s chief mineral resources include bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, brown coal (lignite), iron ore, and oil and natural gas. There are many mineral springs. Agriculture accounts for more than 20% of the gross national product and employs about the same percentage of the workforce. The principal crops are wheat, oilseeds, corn, barley, vegetables, and tobacco. Grapes and other fruit, as well as roses, are grown, and wine and brandy production is important. More than 80% of Bulgaria’s trade is with former Soviet-bloc countries.

Government

Under the constitution of 1991 Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic with an elected president and 15 ministers. The nation has a unicameral national assembly made up of 240 popularly elected members. Administratively, Bulgaria is divided into nine provinces or oblasts.

History

Early History

Ancient Thrace and Moesia , which modern Bulgaria occupies, were settled (6th cent. AD) by Slavic tribes. In 679-80, Bulgar tribes from the banks of the Volga (see Bulgars, Eastern ) crossed the Danube, subjugated the Slavs, and settled permanently in the territory of Bulgaria. The language and culture remained Slavic, and by the 9th cent. the Bulgars had fully merged with the Slavs. The first Bulgarian empire (681-1018), established by Khan Asparuhk, or Isperikh (ruled 680-701), and his successor, Terrel (ruled 701-718), soon emerged as a significant Balkan power and a threat to Byzantium. In 809 Khan Krum (ruled 803-814) captured Sofia from the Byzantines, defeated (811) Emperor Nicephorus I, besieged Constantinople, and withdrew only after obtaining yearly tribute.

In the 9th cent. Bulgaria became the arena of political and cultural rivalry between Constantinople and Rome. In 865, Boris I adopted Christianity, and in 870 Constantinople recognized the independence of the Bulgarian church. Bulgaria received Byzantine culture through the Slavic literary language developed by St. Cyril and St. Methodius in Moravia and brought to the Balkans by their disciples. The first Bulgarian empire reached its height under Simeon I (893-927), who took the title of czar. After his death the country was rent by the heresy of the Bogomils .

Bulgaria crumbled under the attacks of a reinvigorated Byzantium in the 10th cent., and in 1018 it was annexed by Emperor Basil II . Byzantine domination was weakened by the invasions of the Pechenegs and Cumans and by internal disorders at Constantinople. The second Bulgarian empire (1186-1396) rose in 1186 when Ivan Asen (Ivan I) was crowned czar at Veliko Tŭrnovo . His son, Kaloyan, crowned in 1204 with the approval of the pope, defeated (1205) Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople. The height of Bulgar power was reached under Ivan II (Ivan Asen), whose rule (1218-1241) extended over nearly the whole Balkan Peninsula except Greece. His successors could not maintain his empire.

Bulgaria under the Turks

In 1330, Macedonian Bulgaria was conquered by Serbia. After the battles of Kosovo (1389) and Nikopol (1396) Bulgaria was absorbed into the Ottoman Empire. Turkish rule was often oppressive, and rebellions were frequent. By recognizing the authority of the Orthodox Eastern Church in Constantinople over all Christians in their empire, the Turks undermined the basis of Bulgarian culture. A determined effort was made to destroy Bulgarian Christianity and the Bulgarian language. The role of the Phanariots (see Phanar ) was particularly resented.

Although the administration (1864-69) of Midhat Pasha made Bulgaria briefly a model province, by then Bulgarian nationalism was strong. The Mount Athos monastery had continued to use Bulgarian; there, in 1762, a monk had written a history, the first modern literary work in Bulgarian. Bulgarian schools were allowed to open in 1835. In 1870 the Bulgarian Church was reestablished. In 1876 a rebellion, led by Stefan Stambulov , broke out. The subsequent Turkish reprisals (famous as the “Bulgarian atrocities” ) provided a reason for the Russians to liberate (1877-78) their neighbors (see Russo-Turkish Wars ).

The Treaty of San Stefano created a large autonomous Bulgaria within the Ottoman Empire—a Bulgaria that Russia expected to dominate. In order to avert the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans, a European congress was called to revise the treaty (see Berlin, Congress of ). By the new terms Bulgaria was reduced to the territory between the Danube and the Balkans. Present-day southern Bulgaria—then called Eastern Rumelia —became a separate autonomous province, and Macedonia remained under direct Turkish rule. Alexander (Alexander of Battenberg), first prince of Bulgaria, annexed Eastern Rumelia in 1885 and repulsed a consequent Serbian attack.

Independence and After

Alexander’s successor, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, profiting from the revolution of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, proclaimed Bulgaria independent with himself as czar. Bulgaria was victorious against Turkey in the first (1911-12) of the Balkan Wars , but claims to Macedonia involved it in the Second Balkan War with its former allies Greece and Serbia, and it was soon defeated. By the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), Bulgaria lost S Dobruja and a large part of Macedonia.

The Macedonian issue was largely responsible for the entry in 1915 of Bulgaria into World War I on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. There was much domestic opposition to the war, and when Bulgaria’s military position crumbled, Ferdinand fled and Boris III succeeded (1918). In the peace (see Neuilly, Treaty of ) Bulgaria was forced to pay reparations and lost its outlet to the Aegean Sea to Greece and some territory to the former Yugoslavia; S Dobruja was confirmed in Romanian possession.

The Agrarian party cabinet established (1919) by Stambuliski held power until overthrown (1923) in a bloody coup. An era of political confusion ensued, dominated by the violent activities of an irredentist Macedonian terrorist group. The world economic crisis of 1929 had a disastrous impact on impoverished Bulgaria as markets for agricultural exports shrunk. In 1934, Kimon Georgiev became premier with the help of the army and ended constitutional government, but he was ousted in 1935 by Boris III, who established his personal dictatorship.

In World War II, Bulgaria saw an alliance with Germany as an opportunity to satisfy its territorial claims. In 1940, Germany forced Romania to restore to Bulgaria S Dobruja. In 1941, Bulgaria occupied parts of Yugoslavia and Greece (including Macedonia), and declared war on Great Britain and the United States—but not the Soviet Union, because the populace was pro-Russian. The child Simeon II succeeded when Boris died mysteriously (1943). In 1944 the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria, and Soviet troops entered the country (Sept.). Pro-Allied political forces (Communists, Agrarians, and the pro-Soviet army officers), headed by Georgiev, seized power immediately. Bulgaria declared war on Germany, and an armistice with the USSR followed (Oct.).

Postwar Bulgaria

After a short period of coalition rule, the Communists succeeded in taking over the government. The monarchy was abolished, and in 1946 Bulgaria was proclaimed a republic with Georgi Dimitrov as premier. The peace treaty with the Allies (1947) allowed Bulgaria to keep S Dobruja, but no gains were made in Macedonia. Dimitrov proceeded to eliminate possible opponents; Agrarian leader Nikola Petrov was executed in 1947. A new constitution was enacted, and Bulgaria became a one-party state. Industry was nationalized and farms collectivized.

Bulgaria closely followed the Soviet Union in its domestic and foreign policies; after the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform in 1948, Bulgaria sided with the USSR. Dimitrov’s successor, Vulko Chervenkov, massively purged the Communist party (1950). In 1951-52, Bulgaria deported to Turkey some 160,000 citizens of Turkish origin. Relations with Greece and Turkey improved somewhat after 1954. Bulgaria joined (1949) the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and in 1955 became a member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization and the United Nations.

In the mid-1950s the government loosened its grip somewhat. Stalinists fell from power and purge victims were rehabilitated (posthumously in some cases). In 1965 army officers and party officials unsuccessfully attempted a coup. Bulgaria aided the USSR in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. In 1971, Todor Zhivkov , who had been premier since 1962, became president. In the mid-1980s, a “Bulgarization” campaign was launched against the nearly 800,000 ethnic Turks. Turks were forced to adopt Bulgarian names, and Turkish-language broadcasts and publications were halted. In 1986, Zhivkov experimented with limited economic reforms such as a “self-management” program for industrial workers. Zhivkov’s ouster in Nov., 1989, set off a year of social and political turmoil.

In Aug., 1990, the first non-Communist political leader in 40 years, Zheliu Zhelev, was elected president. Economic reforms were introduced and a new constitution (1991) created a parliamentary democracy in the country. No party, however, was able to establish a long-term government, and major economic reforms proved difficult to enact. In 1994, the Socialist party (formerly the Communists) and its allies won a parliamentary majority at the polls, and Zhan Videnov, a Socialist, became premier early in 1995. A period of hyperinflation and economic stagnation followed, and charges of corruption were widespread.

Petar Stoyanov, of the Union of Democratic Forces, was elected president in 1996, and his party won parliamentary elections held in 1997; Ivan Kostov became premier. UN economic sanctions imposed during the 1990s on neighboring Yugoslavia (now Serbia and Montenegro), a major trade partner, had serious negative effects on Bulgaria’s economy. In the parlimentary elections of 2001, the National Movement for Simeon II (NMS), a party sponsored by the former king, captured 43% of the vote and half the seats, and Simeon became premier. In the presidential election later in the year, Socialist Georgy Parvanov won the post after a runoff, defeating the incumbent, Stoyanov. Bulgaria became a member of NATO in Mar., 2004, and a little more than a year later the country signed an accession treaty with the European Union that called for its admission in 2007.

Parliamentary elections in June, 2005, resulted in a victory for the Socialists, but they did not win a majority and were initially unable to form a coalition, and subsequently NMS also failed to do so. In August, however, the Socialists, NMS, and the largely Turkish Movement for Rights and Freedoms agreed to form a coalition government. Socialist Sergei Stanishev became premier.

The first steps are made under the cultural influence of Thracians, Proto-Bulgarians and Slavs (9th century). The national architecture quickly started shaping its own face. By the end of 10th century it has already freed itself from foreign influence and created its own appearence.

The Bulgarian architectural tradition namely blending to the environment, with stern and static forms is discernible today in the building of Boyana Church (suburbs of Sofia).

During the Second Bulgarian State (12th - 14th centuries) the enriched stylistic techniques were manifested in the Holy 40 Martyrs Church and in St Peter and Paul Church in Veliko Turnovo. Their peak is attained in the Nessebur churches of Pantocrator and Aleiturgetot.

The picturesqueness and mobility of the composition reached their perfection during the Bulgarian National Revival period (18th - 19th centuries) in great masterpieces such as Rila Monastery (the present day construction) and of course the Bulgarian National Renaissance houses.
Depending on the overall external appearence and decoration - wood-carving or murals - on the colouring of iron facings, the houses and architectural ensembles differ in the different regions.

Some places worth visiting:

Koprivshtitsa
The houses dated to the second half of the 19th century have exquisite painted facades and sunny verandahs, with carved ceilings and stylish European furnishings and rooms with harmoniously painted walls.

Tryavna
The houses, dated from the 19th century, are two-storey, covered with heavy stone tiles, with white timbered facade to the street, bay windows lacework eaves and spacious verandahs with high seats and settees.

Bozhentsi
Two-storey houses with white facades, dated from the 18th century, overgrown with ivy and laced with crane’s bill, heavy tiled roofs, decorative white chimneys, large roofed verandahs and yards steeped in verdure.

Kotel and Zheravna
Situated 14 km from each other, the houses are nearly the same. The stone-tiled roofs blend harmoniously with the surrounding mountain slopes. All the houses in Zheravna, without exception, look to the south. The ceiling and the doors are decorated with geometrical forms, stylized plants and animals. Austere houses with heavy gates that resemble minor fortresses are typical of Arbanassi, Melnik and Bansko.

Arbanassi
The village was the royal residence of the old capital city of Veliko Turnovo. The oldest stone buildings are richly decorated with carvings and wrought iron. They are recalling for the wealthy life of their former inhabitants.

Melnik
Large houses, dated back from 17th and 18th centuries. The lower ground floor is high, while the upper living quarters are overhanging the lower part and frequently have two rows of windows. The fireplaces continue into chimneys which are part both of the interior and the facade. The basement houses the cellar where the famous Melnik wine is aged.

Bansko
The town’s architecture resembles that of monasteries in many respects. The fortified house’s austere and inaccessible appearence is broken only by the spaceous verandah with carved columns and railings.

Nessebur
Houses with special charm, built during 18th - 19th centuries. They are of the Black Sea type, with stone basements, wooden staircases leading up to the living quarter with overhanging the lower round floor. They are faced with beams to protect the building from the humid salty air. Nessebur is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Old Plovdiv
Picturesquely situated on 3 hills, more ancient than Bulgaria itself, the city preserves the eternal values of its 6 millenia-long history like a huge pantheon. The town is one of the ancient crossroads between East and West with many landmarks remaining from Roman times.
The Bulgarian National Revival architecture (18th - 19th centuries) in the old town was created by Bulgarian master builders.
Along the steep cobblestone lanes, behind stone walls and iron-studded gates, rising silhouettes in warm colours, overhanging facades with many windows and striking details, shape the appearance of the Plovdiv symmetrical house.
Every house has its own style and atmosphere, its intimate world with carved ceilings and bright murals, with fine furniture from Venice, Vienna and London.

Veliko Turnovo
Veliko Turnovo has preserved the atmosphere of the Bulgarian National Revival times.
The old part embraces the architectural ensembles on Gurko street and in Samovodene marketplace. The distinct Turnovo building tradition is influenced by the terrain.

Stately buildings with bay windows and garrets are dug one above the other into the rocky hills.
The works of the self-taught master Nikola Ficheto are genuine architectural masterpieces. The old capital is part and parcel of the appearance of the modern city.

THE MYSTERY OF BULGARIA

Bulgaria’s strong traditions are reflected in its festivals and celebratory events. Marked by ritual songs, dances and costumes, they offer visitors perhaps the best glimpse into the country’s folkways and customs.

The traditions of the Thracians, Slavs and Bulgarians have been blended into a folklore and lifestyle variety that still amazes experts. The world has started talking about the Mystery of Bugarian songs and dances. A Bulgarian Rhodope folk song together with Bethoven’s Ninth Symphony travelling to the stars with Voyager spaceships is the Bulgarian message to alian civilisations! The world is discovering it again and again at major folklore and song contests in Italy, France, England, Ireland, etc. from which the Bulgarian music and dance ensembles invariably walk off with the first prizes.

The Bulgarian costumes and songs are very specific cultural phenomena which evolve during long historic development. The traditional folk costumes – casual, festive and ritual – differ from village to village.

The colourful folk fairs, singing contests and original folklore festivals in our country gather thousands of singers. musicians and dancers - performers of authentic folklore. Several generations of Bulgarians sing, play and dance there.

You will discover the key to the mystery, heart and soul of Bulgaria, if you attend one of the following folklore events:

The National Folk Festival in Koprivshtitsa held every 5 years in August - and the Eurofolk Festival in Koprivshtitsa - held every year in August;

The “Pirin sings” folklore festival - held every 2 years in August in the Predel locality (15 km from Bansko);

The “Rozhen Sings” National Fair and Singing Contest - held every year in August the large Rozhen col near Pamporovo winter resort;

The “Ilinden” - a big Rhodope festival of “cheverme” (Iamb roasted on a spit over an open fire) and the famous bagpipes. Held every year in early August near the village of Shiroka Luka;

The National Mummers Festival - held every five years in January in the town of Pernik;

The International Folk Festival in Bourgas - held every year in August;

The International Folk Festival in Veliko Turnovo - held every year in July and August.

Full of beauty, gaiety and a healthy love of life, the Bulgarian festivals and customs date hack to ancient times when man tried to appease the natural elements and trembled before their power.

The celebrations of Christmas, New Year’s Eve, Palm Sunday and Easter, the ritual mummers - KUKERI and fire-dancers - NESTINARI games have turned into a moral prescript and philosophy of fertility, health and prosperity.

Baba Marta - the most Bulgarian of all Bulgarian customs, not known anywhere else. The celebrations start every year on the 1st of March. People give one another as gifts MARTENITSA - tassels made of red and white threads, as a symbol of coming spring, health and happiness. They wear them pinned to their clothes until they first see a stork - the harbinger of spring.

The Rose Festival held every year in late May - early June, is both unique and incredibly colourful.

The entire Valley of Roses comes vibrantly alive. The rose-picking season starts at dawn, before sunrise and before the rose fragrance has had a chance to disappear. Young rose-pickers dressed in colourful national costumes make their way to the rose fields to the sounds of folk music.

This is the time of the Festival of Roses, dedicated to beauty, youth and hope. The festival is celebrated with carnivals, processions, folk songs and dances in the streets of Karlovo and Kazanluk.

As a long-standing tradition “King Seuth” and “Queen Rose” open it ceremoniously on the first day of the festival. And the carnival processions along the town streets mark its gala ending on the final day of the celebrations.